Chapter 13 ~ Photosynthesis

Introduction

The image shows a map of the world, colored by the levels of chlorophyll a on land and in the ocean.
Figure 13.1 This world map shows Earth’s distribution of photosynthetic activity determined by chlorophyll a concentrations. On land, chlorophyll is evident from terrestrial plants, and within oceanic zones, from chlorophyll from phytoplankton. (credit: modification of work by SeaWiFS Project, NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center and ORBIMAGE)

Chapter Outline

13.1 Overview of Photosynthesis
13.2 The Light-Dependent Reactions of Photosynthesis
13.3 Using Light Energy to Make Organic Molecules

The metabolic processes in all organisms—from bacteria to humans—require energy. To get this energy, many organisms access stored energy by eating, that is, by ingesting other organisms. But where does the stored energy in food originate? All of this energy can be traced back to photosynthesis.

Overview of Photosynthesis

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:

  • Explain the significance of photosynthesis to other living organisms
  • Describe the main structures involved in photosynthesis
  • Identify the substrates and products of photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is essential to all life on earth; both plants and animals depend on it. It is the only biological process that can capture energy that originates from sunlight and converts it into chemical compounds (carbohydrates) that every organism uses to power its metabolism. It is also a source of oxygen necessary for many living organisms. In brief, the energy of sunlight is “captured” to energize electrons, whose energy is then stored in the covalent bonds of sugar molecules. How long lasting and stable are those covalent bonds? The energy extracted today by the burning of coal and petroleum products represents sunlight energy captured and stored by photosynthesis 350 to 200 million years ago during the Carboniferous Period.

Plants, algae, and a group of bacteria called cyanobacteria are the only organisms capable of performing photosynthesis (Figure 13.2). Because they use light to manufacture their own food, they are called photoautotrophs (literally, “self-feeders using light”). Other organisms, such as animals, fungi, and most other bacteria, are termed heterotrophs (“other feeders”), because they must rely on the sugars produced by photosynthetic organisms for their energy needs. A third very interesting group of bacteria synthesize sugars, not by using sunlight’s energy, but by extracting energy from inorganic chemical compounds. For this reason, they are referred to as chemoautotrophs.

Photo a shows a fern leaf. Photo b shows thick, green algae growing on water. Micrograph c shows cyanobacteria, which are green rods about 10 microns long. Photo D shows black smoke pouring out of a deep sea vent covered with red worms. Micrograph E shows rod-shaped bacteria about 1.5 microns long.
Figure 13.2 Photoautotrophs including (a) plants, (b) algae, and (c) cyanobacteria synthesize their organic compounds via photosynthesis using sunlight as an energy source. Cyanobacteria and planktonic algae can grow over enormous areas in water, at times completely covering the surface. In a (d) deep sea vent, chemoautotrophs, such as these (e) thermophilic bacteria, capture energy from inorganic compounds to produce organic compounds. The ecosystem surrounding the vents has a diverse array of animals, such as tubeworms, crustaceans, and octopuses that derive energy from the bacteria. (credit a: modification of work by Steve Hillebrand, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; credit b: modification of work by “eutrophication&hypoxia”/Flickr; credit c: modification of work by NASA; credit d: University of Washington, NOAA; credit e: modification of work by Mark Amend, West Coast and Polar Regions Undersea Research Center, UAF, NOAA)

The importance of photosynthesis is not just that it can capture sunlight’s energy. After all, a lizard sunning itself on a cold day can use the sun’s energy to warm up in a process called behavioral thermoregulation. In contrast, photosynthesis is vital because it evolved as a way to store the energy from solar radiation (the “photo-” part) to energy in the carbon-carbon bonds of carbohydrate molecules (the “-synthesis” part). Those carbohydrates are the energy source that heterotrophs use to power the synthesis of ATP via respiration. Therefore, photosynthesis powers 99 percent of Earth’s ecosystems. When a top predator, such as a wolf, preys on a deer (Figure 13.3), the wolf is at the end of an energy path that went from nuclear reactions on the surface of the sun, to visible light, to photosynthesis, to vegetation, to deer, and finally to the wolf.

A photo shows deer running through tall grass beside a forest.
Figure 13.3 The energy stored in carbohydrate molecules from photosynthesis passes through the food chain. The predator that eats these deer receives a portion of the energy that originated in the photosynthetic vegetation that the deer consumed. (credit: modification of work by Steve VanRiper, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)

Main Structures and Summary of Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is a multi-step process that requires specific wavelengths of visible sunlight, carbon dioxide (which is low in energy), and water as substrates (Figure 13.4). After the process is complete, it releases oxygen and produces glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P), as well as simple carbohydrate molecules (high in energy) that can then be converted into glucose, sucrose, or any of dozens of other sugar molecules. These sugar molecules contain energy and the energized carbon that all living things need to survive.

Photo of a tree with labels shows photosynthesis. Arrows indicate that the tree uses carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight to make sugars and oxygen. Water is absorbed through the tree's roots; sunlight is absorbed through the tree's leaves; the tree also absorbs carbon dioxide, and releases oxygen.
Figure 13.4 Photosynthesis uses solar energy, carbon dioxide, and water to produce energy-storing carbohydrates. Oxygen is generated as a waste product of photosynthesis.

The following is the chemical equation for photosynthesis (Figure 12.5):

The photosynthesis equation is shown. According to this equation, six carbon dioxide and six water molecules produce one sugar molecule and six oxygen molecules. The sugar molecule is made of six carbons, twelve hydrogens, and six oxygens. Sunlight is used as an energy source.
Figure 13.5 The basic equation for photosynthesis is deceptively simple. In reality, the process takes place in many steps involving intermediate reactants and products. Glucose, the primary energy source in cells, is made from two three-carbon G3Ps.

Although the equation looks simple, the many steps that take place during photosynthesis are actually quite complex. Before learning the details of how photoautotrophs turn sunlight into food, it is important to become familiar with the structures involved.

Basic Photosynthetic Structures

In plants, photosynthesis generally takes place in leaves, which consist of several layers of cells. The process of photosynthesis occurs in a middle layer called the mesophyll. The gas exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen occurs through small, regulated openings called stomata (singular: stoma), which also play roles in the regulation of gas exchange and water balance. The stomata are typically located on the underside of the leaf, which helps to minimize water loss due to high temperatures on the upper surface of the leaf. Each stoma is flanked by guard cells that regulate the opening and closing of the stomata by swelling or shrinking in response to osmotic changes.

In all autotrophic eukaryotes, photosynthesis takes place inside an organelle called a chloroplast. For plants, chloroplast-containing cells exist mostly in the mesophyll. Chloroplasts have a double membrane envelope (composed of an outer membrane and an inner membrane), and are ancestrally derived from ancient free-living cyanobacteria. Within the chloroplast are stacked, disc-shaped structures called thylakoids. Embedded in the thylakoid membrane is chlorophyll, a pigment (molecule that absorbs light) responsible for the initial interaction between light and plant material, and numerous proteins that make up the electron transport chain. The thylakoid membrane encloses an internal space called the thylakoid lumen. As shown in Figure 13.6, a stack of thylakoids is called a granum, and the liquid-filled space surrounding the granum is called stroma or “bed” (not to be confused with stoma or “mouth,” an opening on the leaf epidermis).

VISUAL CONNECTION

Visual Connection

This illustration shows a chloroplast, which has an outer membrane and an inner membrane. The space between the outer and inner membranes is called the intermembrane space. Inside the inner membrane are flat, pancake-like structures called thylakoids. The thylakoids form stacks called grana. The liquid inside the inner membrane is called the stroma, and the space inside the thylakoid is called the thylakoid lumen.
Figure 13.6 Photosynthesis takes place in chloroplasts, which have an outer membrane and an inner membrane. Stacks of thylakoids called grana form a third membrane layer.

On a hot, dry day, the guard cells of plants close their stomata to conserve water. What impact will this have on photosynthesis?

The Two Parts of Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis takes place in two sequential stages: the light-dependent reactions and the light-independent reactions. In the light-dependent reactions, energy from sunlight is absorbed by chlorophyll and that energy is converted into stored chemical energy. In the light-independent reactions, the chemical energy harvested during the light-dependent reactions drives the assembly of sugar molecules from carbon dioxide. Therefore, although the light-independent reactions do not use light as a reactant, they require the products of the light-dependent reactions to function. In addition, however, several enzymes of the light-independent reactions are activated by light. The light-dependent reactions utilize certain molecules to temporarily store the energy: These are referred to as energy carriers. The energy carriers that move energy from light-dependent reactions to light-independent reactions can be thought of as “full” because they are rich in energy. After the energy is released, the “empty” energy carriers return to the light-dependent reaction to obtain more energy. Figure 13.7 illustrates the components inside the chloroplast where the light-dependent and light-independent reactions take place.

This illustration shows a chloroplast with an outer membrane, an inner membrane, and stacks of membranes inside the inner membrane called thylakoids. The entire stack is called a granum. In the light reactions, energy from sunlight is converted into chemical energy in the form of A T P and N A D P H. In the process, water is used and oxygen is produced. Energy from A T P and N A D P H are used to power the Calvin cycle, which produces G A 3 P from carbon dioxide. A T P is broken down to A D P and Pi, and N A D P H is oxidized to N A D P superscript plus sign baseline. The cycle is completed when the light reactions convert these molecules back into A T P and N A D P H.
Figure 13.7 Photosynthesis takes place in two stages: light-dependent reactions and the Calvin cycle. Light-dependent reactions, which take place in the thylakoid membrane, use light energy to make ATP and NADPH. The Calvin cycle, which takes place in the stroma, uses energy derived from these compounds to make G3P from CO2. Credit: Rao, A., Ryan, K., Fletcher, S., Hawkins, A. and Tag, A. Texas A&M University.

LINK TO LEARNING

Link to Learning

Click the link to learn more about photosynthesis.

EVERYDAY CONNECTION

Everyday Connection

Photosynthesis at the Grocery Store

A photo shows people shopping in a grocery store.
Figure 13.8 Foods that humans consume originate from photosynthesis. (credit: Associação Brasileira de Supermercados)

Major grocery stores in the United States are organized into departments, such as dairy, meats, produce, bread, cereals, and so forth. Each aisle (Figure 13.8) contains hundreds, if not thousands, of different products for customers to buy and consume.

Although there is a large variety, each item ultimately can be linked back to photosynthesis. Meats and dairy link, because the animals were fed plant-based foods. The breads, cereals, and pastas come largely from starchy grains, which are the seeds of photosynthesis-dependent plants. What about desserts and drinks? All of these products contain sugar—sucrose is a plant product, a disaccharide, a carbohydrate molecule, which is built directly from photosynthesis. Moreover, many items are less obviously derived from plants: For instance, paper goods are generally plant products, and many plastics (abundant as products and packaging) are derived from “algae” (unicellular plant-like organisms, and cyanobacteria). Virtually every spice and flavoring in the spice aisle was produced by a plant as a leaf, root, bark, flower, fruit, or stem. Ultimately, photosynthesis connects to every meal and every food a person consumes.

The Light-Dependent Reactions of Photosynthesis

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:

  • Explain how plants absorb energy from sunlight
  • Describe short and long wavelengths of light
  • Describe how and where photosynthesis takes place within a plant

How can light energy be used to make food? When a person turns on a lamp, electrical energy becomes light energy. Like all other forms of kinetic energy, light can travel, change form, and be harnessed to do work. In the case of photosynthesis, light energy is converted into chemical energy, which photoautotrophs use to build basic carbohydrate molecules (Figure 13.9). However, autotrophs only use a few specific wavelengths of sunlight.

A photo shows the silhouette of a grassy plant against the sun at sunset.
Figure 13.9 Photoautotrophs can capture visible light energy in specific wavelengths from the sun, converting it into the chemical energy used to build food molecules. (credit: Gerry Atwell)

What Is Light Energy?

The sun emits an enormous amount of electromagnetic radiation (solar energy in a spectrum from very short gamma rays to very long radio waves). Humans can see only a tiny fraction of this energy, which we refer to as “visible light.” The manner in which solar energy travels is described as waves. Scientists can determine the amount of energy of a wave by measuring its wavelength (shorter wavelengths are more powerful than longer wavelengths)—the distance between consecutive crest points of a wave. Therefore, a single wave is measured from two consecutive points, such as from crest to crest or from trough to trough (Figure 13.10).

The illustration shows two waves. The distance between the crests (or troughs) is the wavelength. The crest is the upper portion of the wave, the trough is the lower portion of the wave.
Figure 13.10 The wavelength of a single wave is the distance between two consecutive points of similar position (two crests or two troughs) along the wave.

Visible light constitutes only one of many types of electromagnetic radiation emitted from the sun and other stars. Scientists differentiate the various types of radiant energy from the sun within the electromagnetic spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of all possible frequencies of radiation (Figure 13.11). The difference between wavelengths relates to the amount of energy carried by them.

The illustration lists the types of electromagnetic radiation in order of increasing wavelength. These include gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet, visible, infrared, and radio. Gamma rays have a very short wavelength, on the order of one thousandth of a nanometer. Radio waves have a very long wavelength, on the order of one kilometer. Visible light ranges from 380 nanometers at the violet end of the spectrum, to 750 nanometers at the red end of the spectrum.
Figure 13.11 The sun emits energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation. This radiation exists at different wavelengths, each of which has its own characteristic energy. All electromagnetic radiation, including visible light, is characterized by its wavelength.

Each type of electromagnetic radiation travels at a particular wavelength. The longer the wavelength, the less energy it carries. Short, tight waves carry the most energy. This may seem illogical, but think of it in terms of a piece of moving heavy rope. It takes little effort by a person to move a rope in long, wide waves. To make a rope move in short, tight waves, a person would need to apply significantly more energy.

The electromagnetic spectrum (Figure 13.11) shows several types of electromagnetic radiation originating from the sun, including X-rays and ultraviolet (UV) rays. The higher-energy waves can penetrate tissues and damage cells and DNA, which explains why both X-rays and UV rays can be harmful to living organisms.

Absorption of Light

Light energy initiates the process of photosynthesis when pigments absorb specific wavelengths of visible light. Organic pigments, whether in the human retina or the chloroplast thylakoid, have a narrow range of energy levels that they can absorb. Energy levels lower than those represented by red light are insufficient to raise an orbital electron to an excited (quantum) state. Energy levels higher than those in blue light will physically tear the molecules apart, in a process called bleaching. Our retinal pigments can only “see” (absorb) wavelengths between 700 nm and 400 nm of light, a spectrum that is therefore called visible light. For the same reasons, plants, pigment molecules absorb only light in the wavelength range of 700 nm to 400 nm; plant physiologists refer to this range for plants as photosynthetically active radiation.

The visible light seen by humans as white light actually exists in a rainbow of colors. Certain objects, such as a prism or a drop of water, disperse white light to reveal the colors to the human eye. The visible light portion of the electromagnetic spectrum shows the rainbow of colors, with violet and blue having shorter wavelengths, and therefore higher energy. At the other end of the spectrum toward red, the wavelengths are longer and have lower energy (Figure 13.13).

A ground state atom is depicted with an electron in an inner shell. A photon is pictured hitting the atom. The result is pictured as an excited state atom. The electron has moved to an outer shell.
Figure 13.12 Light energy can excite electrons. When a photon of light energy interacts with an electron, the electron may absorb the energy and jump from its lowest energy ground state to an excited state. Credit: Rao, A. and Ryan, K. Department of Biology, Texas A&M University.
The illustration shows the colors of visible light. In order of decreasing wavelength, these are red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.
Figure 13.13 The colors of visible light do not carry the same amount of energy. Violet has the shortest wavelength and therefore carries the most energy, whereas red has the longest wavelength and carries the least amount of energy. (credit: modification of work by NASA)

Understanding Pigments

Different kinds of pigments exist, and each absorbs only specific wavelengths (colors) of visible light. Pigments reflect or transmit the wavelengths they cannot absorb, making them appear a mixture of the reflected or transmitted light colors.

Chlorophylls and carotenoids are the two major classes of photosynthetic pigments found in plants and algae; each class has multiple types of pigment molecules. There are five major chlorophylls: a, b, c and d and a related molecule found in prokaryotes called bacteriochlorophyll. Chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b are found in higher plant chloroplasts and will be the focus of the following discussion.

With dozens of different forms, carotenoids are a much larger group of pigments. The carotenoids found in fruit—such as the red of tomato (lycopene), the yellow of corn seeds (zeaxanthin), or the orange of an orange peel (β-carotene)—are used as advertisements to attract seed dispersers. In photosynthesis, carotenoids function as photosynthetic pigments that are very efficient molecules for the disposal of excess energy. When a leaf is exposed to full sun, the light-dependent reactions are required to process an enormous amount of energy; if that energy is not handled properly, it can do significant damage. Therefore, many carotenoids reside in the thylakoid membrane, absorb excess energy, and safely dissipate that energy as heat.

Each type of pigment can be identified by the specific pattern of wavelengths it absorbs from visible light: This is termed the absorption spectrum. The graph in Figure 13.14 shows the absorption spectra for chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and a type of carotenoid pigment called β-carotene (which absorbs blue and green light). Notice how each pigment has a distinct set of peaks and troughs, revealing a highly specific pattern of absorption. Chlorophyll a absorbs wavelengths from either end of the visible spectrum (blue and red), but not green. Because green is reflected or transmitted, chlorophyll appears green. Carotenoids absorb in the short-wavelength blue region, and reflect the longer yellow, red, and orange wavelengths.

Chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b are made up of a long hydrocarbon chain attached to a large, complex ring made up of nitrogen and carbon. Magnesium is associated with the center of the ring. Chlorophyll b differs from chlorophyll a in that it has a C H O group instead of a C H 3 group associated with one part of the ring. Beta-carotene is a branched hydrocarbon with a six-membered carbon ring at each end. Each chart shows the absorbance spectra for chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and beta-carotene. The three pigments absorb blue-green and orange-red wavelengths of light but have slightly different spectra.
Figure 13.14 (a) Chlorophyll a, (b) chlorophyll b, and (c) β-carotene are hydrophobic organic pigments found in the thylakoid membrane. Chlorophyll a and b, which are identical except for the part indicated in the red box, are responsible for the green color of leaves. β-carotene is responsible for the orange color in carrots. Each pigment has (d) a unique absorbance spectrum. Credit: Rao, A., Ryan, K., Tag, A., Fletcher, S. and Hawkins, A. Department of Biology, Texas A&M University.

Many photosynthetic organisms have a mixture of pigments, and by using these pigments, the organism can absorb energy from a wider range of wavelengths. Not all photosynthetic organisms have full access to sunlight. Some organisms grow underwater where light intensity and quality decrease and change with depth. Other organisms grow in competition for light. Plants on the rainforest floor must be able to absorb any bit of light that comes through, because the taller trees absorb most of the sunlight and scatter the remaining solar radiation (Figure 13.15).

The photo shows undergrowth in a forest.
Figure 13.15 Plants that commonly grow in the shade have adapted to low levels of light by changing the relative concentrations of their chlorophyll pigments. (credit: Jason Hollinger)

When studying a photosynthetic organism, scientists can determine the types of pigments present by generating absorption spectra. An instrument called a spectrophotometer can differentiate which wavelengths of light a substance can absorb. Spectrophotometers measure transmitted light and compute from it the absorption. By extracting pigments from leaves and placing these samples into a spectrophotometer, scientists can identify which wavelengths of light an organism can absorb. Additional methods for the identification of plant pigments include various types of chromatography that separate the pigments by their relative affinities to solid and mobile phases.

How Light-Dependent Reactions Work

The overall function of light-dependent reactions is to convert solar energy into chemical energy in the form of NADPH and ATP. This chemical energy supports the light-independent reactions and fuels the assembly of sugar molecules. The light-dependent reactions are depicted in Figure 12.16. Protein complexes and pigment molecules work together to produce NADPH and ATP. The numbering of the photosystems is derived from the order in which they were discovered, not in the order of the transfer of electrons.

A photosystem is shown embedded in the thylakoid membrane. The reaction center is surrounded by the light-harvesting complexes, which contain pigment molecules. When a photon interacts with the pigment molecules, they transfer light energy toward a pair of chlorophyll a molecules in the reaction center. As a result, an electron is excited and transferred to the primary electron acceptor. Two released electrons are used to replace excited electrons.
Figure 13.16 A photosystem consists of 1) a light-harvesting complex and 2) a reaction center. Pigments in the light-harvesting complex pass light energy to two special chlorophyll a molecules in the reaction center. The light excites an electron from the chlorophyll a pair, which passes to the primary electron acceptor. The excited electron must then be replaced. Credit: Rao, A., Ryan, K., Fletcher, S. and Hawkins, A. Department of Biology, Texas A&M University.

The actual step that converts light energy into chemical energy takes place in a multiprotein complex called a photosystem, two types of which are found embedded in the thylakoid membrane: photosystem II (PSII) and photosystem I (PSI) (Figure 13.17). The two complexes differ on the basis of what they oxidize (that is, the source of the low-energy electron supply) and what they reduce (the place to which they deliver their energized electrons).

Both photosystems have the same basic structure; a number of antenna proteins to which the chlorophyll molecules are bound surround the reaction center where the photochemistry takes place. Each photosystem is serviced by the light-harvesting complex, which passes energy from sunlight to the reaction center; it consists of multiple antenna proteins that contain a mixture of 300 to 400 chlorophyll a and b molecules as well as other pigments like carotenoids. The absorption of a single photon or distinct quantity or “packet” of light by any of the chlorophylls pushes that molecule into an excited state. In short, the light energy has now been captured by biological molecules but is not stored in any useful form yet. The energy is transferred from chlorophyll to chlorophyll until eventually (after about a millionth of a second), it is delivered to the reaction center. Up to this point, only energy has been transferred between molecules, not electrons.

VISUAL CONNECTION

Visual Connection

This illustration shows the components involved in the light reactions, which are all embedded in the thylakoid membrane. Photosystem I I uses light energy to strip electrons from water, producing half an oxygen molecule and two protons in the process. The excited electron is then passed through the chloroplast electron transport chain to photosystem I. Photosystem I passes the electron to N A D P superscript plus sign baseline reductase, which uses it to convert N A D P superscript plus sign baseline and a proton to N A D P H. As the electron transport chain moves electrons, it pumps protons into the thylakoid lumen. The splitting of water also adds electrons to the lumen, and the reduction of N A D P H removes protons from the stroma. The net result is a low lower case p upper case H inside the thylakoid lumen, and a high lower p upper H outside, in the stroma. A T P synthase embedded the thylakoid membrane moves protons down their electrochemical gradient, from the lumen to the stroma, and uses the energy from this gradient to make A T P.
Figure 13.17 In the photosystem II (PSII) reaction center, energy from sunlight is used to extract electrons from water. The electrons travel through the chloroplast electron transport chain to photosystem I (PSI), which reduces NADP+ to NADPH. The electron transport chain moves protons across the thylakoid membrane into the lumen. At the same time, splitting of water adds protons to the lumen, and reduction of NADPH removes protons from the stroma. The net result is a low pH in the thylakoid lumen, and a high pH in the stroma. ATP synthase uses this electrochemical gradient to make ATP. Credit: Rao, A., Ryan, K., Fletcher, S. Department of Biology, Texas A&M University.

What is the initial source of electrons for the chloroplast electron transport chain?

  1. water
  2. oxygen
  3. carbon dioxide
  4. NADPH

The reaction center contains a pair of chlorophyll a molecules with a special property. Those two chlorophylls can undergo oxidation upon excitation; they can actually give up an electron in a process called a photoact. It is at this step in the reaction center during photosynthesis that light energy is converted into an excited electron. All of the subsequent steps involve getting that electron onto the energy carrier NADPH for delivery to the Calvin cycle where the electron is deposited onto carbon for long-term storage in the form of a carbohydrate. PSII and PSI are two major components of the photosynthetic electron transport chain, which also includes the cytochrome complex. The cytochrome complex, an enzyme composed of two protein complexes, transfers the electrons from the carrier molecule plastoquinone (Pq) to the protein plastocyanin (Pc), thus enabling both the transfer of protons across the thylakoid membrane and the transfer of electrons from PSII to PSI.

The reaction center of PSII (called P680) delivers its high-energy electrons, one at the time, to the primary electron acceptor, and through the electron transport chain (Pq to cytochrome complex to plastocyanine) to PSI. P680’s missing electron is replaced by extracting a low-energy electron from water; thus, water is “split” during this stage of photosynthesis, and PSII is re-reduced after every photoact. Splitting one H2O molecule releases two electrons, two hydrogen atoms, and one atom of oxygen. However, splitting two molecules is required to form one molecule of diatomic O2 gas. About 10 percent of the oxygen is used by mitochondria in the leaf to support oxidative phosphorylation. The remainder escapes to the atmosphere where it is used by aerobic organisms to support respiration.

As electrons move through the proteins that reside between PSII and PSI, they lose energy. This energy is used to move hydrogen atoms from the stromal side of the membrane to the thylakoid lumen. Those hydrogen atoms, plus the ones produced by splitting water, accumulate in the thylakoid lumen and will be used synthesize ATP in a later step. Because the electrons have lost energy prior to their arrival at PSI, they must be re-energized by PSI, hence, another photon is absorbed by the PSI antenna. That energy is relayed to the PSI reaction center (called P700). P700 is oxidized and sends a high-energy electron to NADP+ to form NADPH. Thus, PSII captures the energy to create proton gradients to make ATP, and PSI captures the energy to reduce NADP+ into NADPH. The two photosystems work in concert, in part, to guarantee that the production of NADPH will roughly equal the production of ATP. Other mechanisms exist to fine-tune that ratio to exactly match the chloroplast’s constantly changing energy needs.

Generating an Energy Carrier: ATP

As in the intermembrane space of the mitochondria during cellular respiration, the buildup of hydrogen ions inside the thylakoid lumen creates a concentration gradient. The passive diffusion of hydrogen ions from high concentration (in the thylakoid lumen) to low concentration (in the stroma) is harnessed to create ATP, just as in the electron transport chain of cellular respiration. The ions build up energy because of diffusion and because they all have the same electrical charge, repelling each other.

To release this energy, hydrogen ions will rush through any opening, similar to water jetting through a hole in a dam. In the thylakoid, that opening is a passage through a specialized protein channel called the ATP synthase. The energy released by the hydrogen ion stream allows ATP synthase to attach a third phosphate group to ADP, which forms a molecule of ATP (Figure 12.17). The flow of hydrogen ions through ATP synthase is called chemiosmosis because the ions move from an area of high to an area of low concentration through a semi-permeable structure of the thylakoid.

LINK TO LEARNING

Link to Learning

Visit this site and click through the animation to view the process of photosynthesis within a leaf.

Using Light Energy to Make Organic Molecules

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:

  • Describe the Calvin cycle
  • Define carbon fixation
  • Explain how photosynthesis works in the energy cycle of all living organisms

After the energy from the sun is converted into chemical energy and temporarily stored in ATP and NADPH molecules, the cell has the fuel needed to build carbohydrate molecules for long-term energy storage. The products of the light-dependent reactions, ATP and NADPH, have lifespans in the range of millionths of seconds, whereas the products of the light-independent reactions (carbohydrates and other forms of reduced carbon) can survive almost indefinitely. The carbohydrate molecules made will have a backbone of carbon atoms. But where does the carbon come from? It comes from carbon dioxide—the gas that is a waste product of respiration in microbes, fungi, plants, and animals.

The Calvin Cycle

In plants, carbon dioxide (CO2) enters the leaves through stomata, where it diffuses over short distances through intercellular spaces until it reaches the mesophyll cells. Once in the mesophyll cells, CO2 diffuses into the stroma of the chloroplast—the site of light-independent reactions of photosynthesis. These reactions actually have several names associated with them. Another term, the Calvin cycle, is named for the man who discovered it, and because these reactions function as a cycle. Others call it the Calvin-Benson cycle to include the name of another scientist involved in its discovery. The most outdated name is “dark reaction,” because light is not directly required (Figure 13.18). However, the term dark reaction can be misleading because it implies incorrectly that the reaction only occurs at night or is independent of light, which is why most scientists and instructors no longer use it.

This illustration shows that A T P and N A D P H produced in the light reactions are used in the Calvin cycle to make sugar.
Figure 13.18 Light reactions harness energy from the sun to produce chemical bonds, ATP, and NADPH. These energy-carrying molecules are made in the stroma where carbon fixation takes place. Credit: Rao, A., Ryan, K., Tag, A., Fletcher, S. and Hawkins, A. Department of Biology, Texas A&M University.

The light-independent reactions of the Calvin cycle can be organized into three basic stages: fixation, reduction, and regeneration.

Stage 1: Fixation

In the stroma, in addition to CO2, two other components are present to initiate the light-independent reactions: an enzyme called ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCO), and three molecules of ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP), as shown in Figure 12.19. RuBP has five atoms of carbon, flanked by two phosphates.

VISUAL CONNECTION

Visual Connection

A diagram of the Calvin cycle is shown with its three stages: carbon fixation, 3 dash P G A reduction, and regeneration of upper case R lower case u upper case B upper case P. In stage 1, the enzyme upper R lower u upper B lower i lower s upper C upper O adds a carbon dioxide to the five-carbon molecule upper R lower u upper B upper P, producing two three-carbon 3 dash PGA molecules. In stage 2, two N A D P H and two A T P are used to reduce 3 dash PGA to G A 3 P. In stage 3 upper R lower u upper B upper P is regenerated from G A 3 P. One A T P is used in the process. Three complete cycles produces one new G A 3 P, which is shunted out of the cycle and made into glucose, whose moledular formula is upper C subscript 6 baseline upper H subscript 12 baseline upper O subscript 6 baseline.
Figure 13.19 The Calvin cycle has three stages. In stage 1, the enzyme RuBisCO incorporates carbon dioxide into an organic molecule, 3-PGA. In stage 2, the organic molecule is reduced using electrons supplied by NADPH. In stage 3, RuBP, the molecule that starts the cycle, is regenerated so that the cycle can continue. Only one carbon dioxide molecule is incorporated at a time, so the cycle must be completed three times to produce a single three-carbon G3P molecule, and six times to produce a six-carbon glucose molecule. Credit: Rao, A., Ryan, K., Tag, A., Fletcher, S. and Hawkins, A. Department of Biology, Texas A&M University.

Which of the following statements is true?

  1. In photosynthesis, oxygen, carbon dioxide, ATP, and NADPH are reactants. G3P and water are products.
  2. In photosynthesis, chlorophyll, water, and carbon dioxide are reactants. G3P and oxygen are products.
  3. In photosynthesis, water, carbon dioxide, ATP, and NADPH are reactants. RuBP and oxygen are products.
  4. In photosynthesis, water and carbon dioxide are reactants. G3P and oxygen are products.

RuBisCO catalyzes a reaction between CO2 and RuBP. For each CO2 molecule that reacts with one RuBP, two molecules of another compound 3-phospho glyceric acid (3-PGA) form. PGA has three carbons and one phosphate. Each turn of the cycle involves only one RuBP and one carbon dioxide and forms two molecules of 3-PGA. The number of carbon atoms remains the same, as the atoms move to form new bonds during the reactions (3 C atoms from 3CO2 + 15 C atoms from 3RuBP = 18 C atoms in 6 molecules of 3-PGA). This process is called carbon fixation, because CO2 is “fixed” from an inorganic form into organic molecules.

Stage 2: Reduction

ATP and NADPH are used to convert the six molecules of 3-PGA into six molecules of a chemical called glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P). That is a reduction reaction because it involves the gain of electrons by 3-PGA. (Recall that a reduction is the gain of an electron by an atom or molecule.) Six molecules of both ATP and NADPH are used. For ATP, energy is released with the loss of the terminal phosphate atom, converting it into ADP; for NADPH, both energy and a hydrogen atom are lost, converting it into NADP+. Both of these molecules return to the nearby light-dependent reactions to be reused and re-energized.

Stage 3: Regeneration

Interestingly, at this point, only one of the G3P molecules leaves the Calvin cycle and is sent to the cytoplasm to contribute to the formation of other compounds needed by the plant. Because the G3P exported from the chloroplast has three carbon atoms, it takes three “turns” of the Calvin cycle to fix enough net carbon to export one G3P. But each turn makes two G3Ps, thus three turns make six G3Ps. One is exported while the remaining five G3P molecules remain in the cycle and are used to regenerate RuBP, which enables the system to prepare for more CO2to be fixed. Three more molecules of ATP are used in these regeneration reactions.

LINK TO LEARNING

Link to Learning

This link leads to an animation of photosynthesis and the Calvin cycle.

EVOLUTION CONNECTION

Evolution Connection

PhotosynthesisDuring the evolution of photosynthesis, a major shift occurred from the bacterial type of photosynthesis that involves only one photosystem and is typically anoxygenic (does not generate oxygen) into modern oxygenic (does generate oxygen) photosynthesis, employing two photosystems. This modern oxygenic photosynthesis is used by many organisms—from giant tropical leaves in the rainforest to tiny cyanobacterial cells—and the process and components of this photosynthesis remain largely the same. Photosystems absorb light and use electron transport chains to convert energy into the chemical energy of ATP and NADH. The subsequent light-independent reactions then assemble carbohydrate molecules with this energy.

In the harsh dry heat of the desert, plants must conserve and use every drop of water to survive. Because stomata must open to allow for the uptake of CO2, water escapes from the leaf during active photosynthesis. Desert plants have evolved processes to conserve water and deal with harsh conditions. Mechanisms to capture and store CO2 allows plants to adapt to living with less water. Some plants such as cacti (Figure 13.20) can prepare materials for photosynthesis during the night by a temporary carbon fixation/storage process, because opening the stomata at this time conserves water due to cooler temperatures. During the day cacti use the captured CO2 for photosynthesis, and keep their stomata closed.

This photo shows short, round prickly cacti growing in cracks in a rock.
Figure 13.20 The harsh conditions of the desert have led plants like these cacti to evolve variations of the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis. These variations increase the efficiency of water usage, helping to conserve water and energy. (credit: Piotr Wojtkowski)

The Energy Flow

Whether the organism is a bacterium, plant, or animal, all living things access energy by breaking down carbohydrate and other carbon-rich organic molecules. But if plants make carbohydrate molecules, why would they need to break them down, especially when it has been shown that the gas organisms release as a “waste product” (CO2) acts as a substrate for the formation of more food in photosynthesis? Remember, living things need energy to perform life functions. In addition, an organism can either make its own food or eat another organism—either way, the food still needs to be broken down. Finally, in the process of breaking down food, called cellular respiration, heterotrophs release needed energy and produce “waste” in the form of CO2 gas.

However, in nature, there is no such thing as “waste.” Every single atom of matter and energy is conserved, recycled over and over infinitely. Substances change form or move from one type of molecule to another, but their constituent atoms never disappear (Figure 13.22).

In reality, CO2 is no more a form of waste than oxygen is wasteful to photosynthesis. Both are byproducts of reactions that move on to other reactions. Photosynthesis absorbs light energy to build carbohydrates in chloroplasts, and aerobic cellular respiration releases energy by using oxygen to metabolize carbohydrates in the cytoplasm and mitochondria. Both processes use electron transport chains to capture the energy necessary to drive other reactions. These two powerhouse processes, photosynthesis and cellular respiration, function in biological, cyclical harmony to allow organisms to access life-sustaining energy that originates millions of miles away in a burning star humans call the sun.

Light energy enters a chloroplast and is converted to A T P. The A T P enters a process to reduce C O 2 to sugars. On the other side of the image, the sugars enter th citric acid cycle. They give off C O 2. Then, oxidative phosphorylation consumes O 2 and A T P is produced. Metabolites are given off.
Figure 13.21 Connection between Photosynthesis and Respiration Photosynthesis in chloroplasts is the process by which light energy is converted to chemical energy and stored in sugars. Initially, the light energy is converted into chemical energy during ATP synthesis in a process that gives off oxygen. The energy in ATP is then used to reduce CO2 to simple sugars. In contrast, cellular respiration is the process in which the chemical energy stored in sugars is converted into ATP, a source of chemical energy that can be used by the rest of the cell. In the process of converting the energy stored in the sugars to ATP, CO2 is released and oxygen is consumed. Credit: Rao, A., Ryan, and Tag, A. Department of Biology, Texas A&M University.
This photograph shows a giraffe eating leaves from a tree. Labels indicate that the giraffe consumes oxygen and releases carbon dioxide, whereas the tree consumes carbon dioxide and releases oxygen.
Figure 13.22 Photosynthesis consumes carbon dioxide and produces oxygen. Aerobic respiration consumes oxygen and produces carbon dioxide. These two processes play an important role in the carbon cycle. (credit: modification of work by Stuart Bassil)

Chapter Summary

13.1 Overview of Photosynthesis

The process of photosynthesis transformed life on Earth. By harnessing energy from the sun, the evolution of photosynthesis allowed living things access to enormous amounts of energy. Because of photosynthesis, living things gained access to sufficient energy that allowed them to build new structures and achieve the biodiversity evident today.

Only certain organisms (photoautotrophs), can perform photosynthesis; they require the presence of chlorophyll, a specialized pigment that absorbs certain wavelengths of the visible spectrum and can capture energy from sunlight. Photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide and water to assemble carbohydrate molecules and release oxygen as a byproduct into the atmosphere. Eukaryotic autotrophs, such as plants and algae, have organelles called chloroplasts in which photosynthesis takes place, and starch accumulates. In prokaryotes, such as cyanobacteria, the process is less localized and occurs within folded membranes, extensions of the plasma membrane, and in the cytoplasm.

13.2 The Light-Dependent Reactions of Photosynthesis

The pigments of the first part of photosynthesis, the light-dependent reactions, absorb energy from sunlight. A photon strikes the antenna pigments of photosystem II to initiate photosynthesis. The energy travels to the reaction center that contains chlorophyll a and then to the electron transport chain, which pumps hydrogen ions into the thylakoid interior. This action builds up a high concentration of hydrogen ions. The hydrogen ions flow through ATP synthase during chemiosmosis to form molecules of ATP, which are used for the formation of sugar molecules in the second stage of photosynthesis. Photosystem I absorbs a second photon, which results in the formation of an NADPH molecule, another energy and reducing carrier for the light-independent reactions.

13.3 Using Light Energy to Make Organic Molecules

Using the energy carriers formed in the first steps of photosynthesis, the light-independent reactions, or the Calvin cycle, take in CO2 from the atmosphere. An enzyme, RuBisCO, catalyzes a reaction with CO2 and another organic compound, RuBP. After three cycles, a three-carbon molecule of G3P leaves the cycle to become part of a carbohydrate molecule. The remaining G3P molecules stay in the cycle to be regenerated into RuBP, which is then ready to react with more CO2. Photosynthesis forms an energy cycle with the process of cellular respiration. Because plants contain both chloroplasts and mitochondria, they rely upon both photosynthesis and respiration for their ability to function in both the light and dark, and to be able to interconvert essential metabolites.

Study Questions

1. Figure 13.6 On a hot, dry day, the guard cells of plants close their stomata to conserve water. What impact will this have on photosynthesis?

2. Figure 13.17 What is the initial source of electrons for the chloroplast electron transport chain?

  1. Water
  2. Oxygen
  3. Carbon dioxide
  4. NADPH

3. Figure 13.19 Which of the following statements is true?

  1. In photosynthesis, oxygen, carbon dioxide, ATP, and NADPH are reactants. G3P and water are products.
  2. In photosynthesis, chlorophyll, water, and carbon dioxide are reactants. G3P and oxygen are products.
  3. In photosynthesis, water, carbon dioxide, ATP, and NADPH are reactants. RuBP and oxygen are products.
  4. In photosynthesis, water and carbon dioxide are reactants. G3P and oxygen are products.

4. Which of the following components is not used by both plants and cyanobacteria to carry out photosynthesis?

  1. chloroplasts
  2. chlorophyll
  3. carbon dioxide
  4. water

5. What two main products result from photosynthesis?

  1. oxygen and carbon dioxide
  2. chlorophyll and oxygen
  3. sugars/carbohydrates and oxygen
  4. sugars/carbohydrates and carbon dioxide

6. In which compartment of the plant cell do the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis take place?

  1. thylakoid
  2. stroma
  3. outer membrane
  4. mesophyll

7. Which statement about thylakoids in eukaryotes is not correct?

  1. Thylakoids are assembled into stacks.
  2. Thylakoids exist as a maze of folded membranes.
  3. The space surrounding thylakoids is called stroma.
  4. Thylakoids contain chlorophyll.

8. Predict the end result if a chloroplast’s light-independent enzymes developed a mutation that prevented them from activating in response to light.

  1. G3P accumulation
  2. ATP and NADPH accumulation
  3. Water accumulation
  4. Carbon dioxide depletion

9. How are the NADPH and G3P molecules made during photosynthesis similar?

  1. They are both end products of photosynthesis.
  2. They are both substrates for photosynthesis.
  3. They are both produced from carbon dioxide.
  4. They both store energy in chemical bonds.

10. Which of the following structures is not a component of a photosystem?

  1. ATP synthase
  2. antenna molecule
  3. reaction center
  4. primary electron acceptor

11. How many photons does it take to fully reduce one molecule of NADP+ to NADPH?

  1. 1
  2. 2
  3. 4
  4. 8

12. Which complex is not involved in the establishment of conditions for ATP synthesis?

  1. photosystem I
  2. ATP synthase
  3. photosystem II
  4. cytochrome complex

13. From which component of the light-dependent reactions does NADPH form most directly?

  1. photosystem II
  2. photosystem I
  3. cytochrome complex
  4. ATP synthase

14. Three of the same species of plant are each grown under a different colored light for the same amount of time. Plant A is grown under blue light, Plant B is grown under green light, and Plant C is grown under orange light. Assuming the plants use only chlorophyll an and chlorophyll b for photosynthesis, what would be the predicted order of the plants from most growth to least growth?

  1. A, C, B
  2. A, B, C
  3. C, A, B
  4. B, A, C

15. Plants containing only chlorophyll b are exposed to radiation with the following wavelengths: 10nm (x-rays), 450nm (blue light), 670nm (red light), and 800nm (infrared light). Which plants harness the most energy for photosynthesis?

  1. X-ray irradiated plants
  2. Blue light irradiated plants
  3. Red light irradiated plants
  4. Infrared irradiated plants

16. Which molecule must enter the Calvin cycle continually for the light-independent reactions to take place?

  1. RuBisCO
  2. RuBP
  3. 3-PGA
  4. CO2

17. Which order of molecular conversions is correct for the Calvin cycle?

  1. RuBP + G3P → 3-PGA → sugar
     
  2. RuBisCO → CO2 → RuBP → G3P
     
  3. RuBP + CO2 → [RuBisCO] 3-PGA → G3P
     
  4. CO2 → 3-PGA → RuBP → G3P
     

18. Where in eukaryotic cells does the Calvin cycle take place?

  1. thylakoid membrane
  2. thylakoid lumen
  3. chloroplast stroma
  4. granum

19. Which statement correctly describes carbon fixation?

  1. the conversion of CO2 into an organic compound
  2. the use of RuBisCO to form 3-PGA
  3. the production of carbohydrate molecules from G3P
  4. the formation of RuBP from G3P molecules
  5. the use of ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2

20. If four molecules of carbon dioxide enter the Calvin cycle (four “turns” of the cycle), how many G3P molecules are produced and how many are exported?

  1. 4 G3P made, 1 G3P exported
  2. 4 G3P made, 2 G3P exported
  3. 8 G3P made, 1 G3P exported
  4. 8 G3P made, 4 G3P exported
21. What is the overall outcome of the light reactions in photosynthesis?
22. Why are carnivores, such as lions, dependent on photosynthesis to survive?
23. Why are energy carriers thought of as either “full” or “empty”?
24. Describe how the grey wolf population would be impacted by a volcanic eruption that spewed a dense ash cloud that blocked sunlight in a section of Yellowstone National Park.
25. How does the closing of the stomata limit photosynthesis?
26. Describe the pathway of electron transfer from photosystem II to photosystem I in light-dependent reactions.
27. What are the roles of ATP and NADPH in photosynthesis?
28. How and why would the end products of photosynthesis be changed if a plant had a mutation that eliminated its photosystem II complex?
29. Why is the third stage of the Calvin cycle called the regeneration stage?
30. Which part of the light-independent reactions would be affected if a cell could not produce the enzyme RuBisCO?
31. Why does it take three turns of the Calvin cycle to produce G3P, the initial product of photosynthesis?
32. Imagine a sealed terrarium containing a plant and a beetle. How does each organism provide resources for the other? Could each organism survive if it was the only living thing in the terrarium? Why or why not?
33. Compare the flow of energy with the flow of nutrients in a closed, sunny ecosystem consisting of a giraffe and a tree.
LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS
CC LICENSED CONTENT, SPECIFIC ATTRIBUTION

License

Icon for the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License

Forest Ecology Copyright © by George Meindl is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book