Chapter Sections:

• Attributive Tags or Signal Phrases
• Citation Generators – Problems and Limitations
• Date Retrieved for Website Reference Entries and When to Use “n.d” (no date)
• Differentiating between Sources with the Same Author and Date
• Hyperlinks and Attribution: “Citation” for Digital Documents
• Identifying and Citing Content Marketing
• Indirect Citations, or How to Cite a Quote or Paraphrase from a Source
• In-text Citations and Conveying Credibility
• In-text Citations and Using a Source Multiple Times
• In-text Citation – Principles and Formatting
• References Page – Principles and Formatting
• Synthesizing Multiple Sources
• URLs – When to Include to Entire Address

About this Guide

This guide to APA citation follows the 7^th edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. It begins with principles, tips, and explanations to help you better understand the rules of correct attribution and citation. Then we provide examples of how to cite a variety of sources both in text and on the References page.

Wherever necessary, we offer multiple examples depending on where a source is accessed and what information is available. For example, under newspapers, we show you how to cite whether you read the article in print, on the web, or inside of a library database, and what to do if there isn’t an author.

In addition, this guide provides examples for two types of in-text citation parentheticals: with attributive tags or end-of-sentence. The order is always attributive tags first and end-of-sentence second. Following each set is an example of the References entry, which corresponds to both types of in-text citations.

Pro Tip: Starting the References page immediately and maintaining it as you include sources in your drafts will save time and frustration later in the revising/final draft polishing process.

Attributive Tags or Signal Phrases 

Attributive tags, which are also called signal phrases, alert the reader that you are beginning to paraphrase or quote a source. Attributive tags also demonstrate the authority of your sources; giving proper credit to your sources demonstrates careful research and distinguishes your ideas from those of your source authors.

Approaches to Attribution – APA Style

The following sentences show different ways of providing attribution in APA. 

According to Kanter’s (2016) New York Times article, the E.U. plans to nearly double military spending in the next year.

A recent New York Times article reported that the E.U. plans to nearly double military spending in the next year (Kanter, 2016).

James Kanter (2016) explained that the E.U. plans to nearly double military spending in the next year.

Approaches to Attribution – Embedded Hyperlinks

For emails and other digital documents, hyperlinks provide readers with a direct, convenient way to access the sources you’re citing.

In most word-processing applications (including Outlook, Gmail, Word, and Google Docs), you can create formatted hyperlinks by highlighting the text you want to make into a link, right-clicking/control-clicking, choosing the “link” or “add link” option, and pasting in the appropriate URL.

You can hyperlink the attributive verb, the name of the publication, the title of the article, or the names of the authors. Use hyperlinks and attributions to emphasize whatever will best suit your audience and purpose.

Raffaella Sadun, Joseph Fuller, Stephen Hansen, and PJ Neal of Harvard Business Review reported on a recent study of 5,000 C-suite job descriptions.

As the July-August 2022 issue of Harvard Business Review explains, the workplace has evolved so that “strong social skills” are essential for both new employees and members of the C-suite. These include “a high level of self-awareness, the ability to listen and communicate well, a facility for working with different types of people and groups.”

In “The C-Suite Skills that Matter Most,” Harvard Business Review explains the way that the changing workplace environment demands not just technical skills, but also people skills, especially “what psychologists call ‘theory of mind’—the capacity to infer how others are thinking and feeling.”

Verbs for Attributive Tags

When your tag or signal phrase includes a verb, choose one appropriate for the context. Is your source arguing a point, making an observation, reporting a fact, drawing a conclusion, refuting an argument, or stating a belief? By choosing an appropriate verb, you make your source’s stance clear. In APA, sources are usually referred to in past tense.

Citation Generators – Problems and Limitations

Do not use citation generators. They create many errors and you will likely spend as much time, if not more, checking and editing References entries than if you just create a References page as you complete your research.

If you still choose to use a generator, be cautious. Even if you are using the “Cite” function on the library website or other citation generators (for instance, citationmachine.net or easybib.com), you need to perform due diligence on the citations they generate; the References entries they create are not always correct and/or updated with the latest version of APA.

Common Errors Created by Citation Generators

• Author’s initials
• Date format
• All caps
• Title and proper name capitalization
• URLs
• Italicization
• Page number format
• Volume/issue format
• Retrieval information

Date Retrieved for Website Reference Entries and When to Use “n.d” (no date)

If there is no date, use (n.d.) and include “Retrieved [Month day, year], from…” in the References page entry.

Situations Where n.d. is Appropriate

Webpages that Could be Revised, Updated, or Renamed without Notice 

Common examples are company websites, professional organization websites, some news websites, etc.

Example

World Wildlife Fund. (n.d). Oceans. Retrieved February 2, 2021, from http://www.worldwildlife.org/initiatives/oceans

Blogs, Articles, or other Sources with Titles, but No Publication or “Updated on…” Date

This often indicates that the material is content marketing or an assembling of older materials to generate “new” content, so use with caution as a source.

Examples

Three principles of effective communication. (n.d.). Actuarial Journey. Retrieved October 12, 2020, from https://www.actuarialjourney.com/3-principles-of-effective-communication/

Saint Louis, C. (n.d). How to stand up for yourself. The New York Times. Retrieved January 16, 2020, from https://www.nytimes.com/guides/year-of-living-better/how-to-stand-up-for-yourself

Sources Specifically Labeled “No Date”

Example (generic)

Author. (n.d.).Title of article. Title of Publication. Retrieved [Month day, year], from www.website.com/entire-url

Differentiating between Sources with the Same Author and Date

In-text parenthetical citations in APA use only the author’s last name and the publication year, but this can create confusion if you have multiple sources from the same author published in the same year. Use the following system to differentiate between such sources.

Two Sources with the Same Author and the Same Publication Year

Order citations on the References page from oldest to newest, and then identify the first (oldest) entry of the year with the letter “a” directly after the year; the second entry will be “b” and so on.

In-text Citation Example

Daniel Creel (2017b), a dietician and psychologist, suggested that being warm and empathetic can create positive relationships with people struggling with weight issues. Creel (2017a) has also argued that dieticians should shift from seeing themselves as educators to guides, which can help alleviate frustration with noncompliant patients.

References Page Entries

Creel, D. B. (2017a, January 13). Relinquishing your role as the food police. RD Lounge. https://rdlounge.com/2017/01/13/relinquishing-your-role-as-the-food-police/

Creel, D. B. (2017b, November 30) Obesity: Communicating with respect. RD Lounge. https://rdlounge.com/2017/11/30/obesity-communicating-with-respect/

Multiple Sources with the Same Author (Including Owners or Sponsors as Authors) and No Date

Order citations in alphabetical order, and then identify the first entry with the letter “a” and a hyphen directly after the n.d.; the second entry will be “b” and a hyphen, and so on.

In-text Citation Example

Whole Foods expressed their belief in “long-term thinking” as a value for leaders (Whole Foods Market, n.d.–b), which corresponds with their branding as a company committed to organic products (Whole Foods Market, n.d.–c) and “environmental stewardship” (Whole Foods Market, n.d.–a).

References Page Entries

Whole Foods Market. (n.d.- a). Our core values. Retrieved December 15, 2019, from https://www.wholefoodsmarket.com/mission-values/core-values

Whole Foods Market. (n.d.- b). Our leadership principles. Retrieved December 3, 2019, from https://www.wholefoodsmarket.com/our-leadership-principles

Whole Foods Market. (n.d.- c). Your certified organic grocer. Retrieved November 30, 2019, from https://www.wholefoodsmarket.com/about-our-products/organic-food/organicgrocer

Hyperlinks and Attribution: “Citation” for Digital Documents

Attributive tags, which are also called signal phrases, alert the reader that you are beginning to paraphrase or quote a source. Attributive tags also demonstrate the authority of your sources; giving proper credit to your sources demonstrates careful research and distinguishes your ideas from those of your source authors.

Embedded Hyperlinks

For emails and other digital documents, hyperlinks provide readers with a direct, convenient way to access the sources you’re citing.

In most word-processing applications (including Outlook, Gmail, Word, and Google Docs), you can create formatted hyperlinks by highlighting the text you want to make into a link, right-clicking/control-clicking, choosing the “link” or “add link” option, and pasting in the appropriate URL.

You can hyperlink the attributive verb, the name of the publication, the title of the article, or the names of the authors. Keep your hyperlink choices consistent throughout a single email or document.

Raffaella Sadun, Joseph Fuller, Stephen Hansen, and PJ Neal of Harvard Business Review reported on a recent study of 5,000 C-suite job descriptions.

As the July-August 2022 issue of Harvard Business Review explains, the workplace has evolved so that “strong social skills” are essential for both new employees and members of the C-suite. These include “a high level of self-awareness, the ability to listen and communicate well, a facility for working with different types of people and groups.”

In “The C-Suite Skills that Matter Most,” Harvard Business Review explains the way that the changing workplace environment demands not just technical skills, but also people skills, especially “what psychologists call ‘theory of mind’—the capacity to infer how others are thinking and feeling.”

Identifying and Citing Content Marketing

Sponsored content, content marketing, or native advertising is an article, blog post, podcast episode, or social media post that is designed to promote a product or service. Designed to blend into the publication’s other content, this material has no relationship to the journalists, authors, or editors of the publication where it appears. The following clues will help you tell the difference between an objective, fact-checked article and paid advertising.

Clues for Identifying Content Marketing

Advertising Labels

Most reputable publications will clearly label sponsored content above or below the article or post, but the label can be small and unobtrusive. The labels vary but include terms like “Advertisement,” “Ad,” “Promoted,” “Sponsored,” “Featured Partner,” or “Suggested Post.”

The New York Times, for example, labels advertiser content as a “paid post.” If you click on the label, you’ll read the following message:

“This content was paid for by The Healthy Living Coalition and created by T Brand Studio, the brand marketing arm of The New York Times. The news and editorial staffs of The New York Times had no role in this post’s creation.”

LinkedIn and other social media sites also identify native advertising with the labels “sponsored” or “promoted.” However, it can be harder to tell if an individual poster is getting paid to recommend products.

Blogs, Newsletters, & Podcasts Connected to Company Websites

Although these won’t be labeled as sponsored content, they are, in fact, advertising. McKinsey Blog provides information but its main purpose is to draw potential clients to their website to learn more about what they offer. Goldman Sachs’s podcast Exchanges serves the same purpose; the episodes highlight the expertise of their employees and promote the company.

Forbes’ Council Posts

Forbes created a set of “councils” that members can join to promote themselves as leaders in their fields. Professionals on the councils pay to publish posts on Forbes, thus raising their profile in their industry. These posts are a tricky form of sponsored content; they usually have an author and a date and the labelling is unclear.

Organizations or Corporations as Authors

An objective, fact-checked news or popular magazine article will have a reporter or a staff writer on the byline. Sponsored content might not have an author or will have a company or organization as an author. For example, Deloitte pays to place native advertising in The Wall Street Journal in a series they call “CIO Insights and Analysis from Deloitte.” These articles may be interesting, but they are not fact checked or objective; their purpose is to promote Deloitte’s services.

The Wall Street Journal also provides the following label on articles in this series:

“Content from Our Sponsor Please note: The Wall Street Journal News Department was not involved in the creation of the content below.”

Un-dated Material

Without a date, a sponsored post seems relevant for a longer period of time and is therefore a cost-effective approach to advertising. Something that is trying to look like a news article or a blog post with business tips and doesn’t have a date is almost always trying to sell something. This technique is common in blog “posts” or podcast “episodes” associated with consulting firms or other companies that offer services related to the blog or podcast’s topic. 

URL Clues

URLs are another place that a responsible news organization will label sponsored content. Here’s an example from Wired:

https://www.wired.com/sponsored/story/how-digital-purchasing-is-helping-businessestake-care-of-employees/

When Can Content Marketing Be a Valid Source?

Sometimes credible sources offer free information in order to promote their brand. For example, the New York Times’s podcast, The Daily, is available for free on most podcast apps and promotes the value of paid subscriptions to the newspaper. However, The Daily follows the same editorial standards as the newspaper; most of the stories it covers are based on reported articles that have been carefully edited and fact checked.

For sources that seem credible but might be content marketing, consider the following questions:

• What’s the purpose of the source?
• Is this source affiliated with an organization that is known for providing accurate information?
• Who is the author and what makes them credible?
• How does this source use evidence?  What makes that evidence credible?
• What does this source leave out?
• Can I confirm this source’s information with another source that I know is credible?

Citing Content Marketing

In rare cases, it can be useful to use content marketing that isn’t affiliated with a credible source in your research. Cite a piece of content marketing according to the form or genre it takes. For example, if you want to cite a company blog, cite it as you would any other blog. Clearly identify that it is content marketing for your reader and explain how that fact aligns with your purpose in citing it.

Indirect Citations, or How to Cite a Quote or Paraphrase from a Source

How to Use Your Sources’ Interviews or Quoted/Paraphrased Materials

Use an indirect citation when you want to cite material from someone else that is quoted or paraphrased in one of your sources.

For instance, a reporter may interview a communications coach and use direct quotes from the coach in their article. If you want to use a quote from the coach, use an indirect citation. Clearly attribute the quote to the coach (the person who said it), but then credit the author of the text (the reporter, in this example) in which you found the quote in the parenthetical citation and on the references page.

In-text Citation Example

When preparing for a meeting, Barbara Miller, a communications skills coach, recommended “writing down all the thoughts that might distract […] from listening and setting the paper aside until later” (as cited in Shellenbarger, 2014).

References Page Entry

Shellenbarger, S. (2014, July 22).Tuning in: Improving your listening skills.The Wall Street Journal. https://www.wsj.com/articles/tuning-in-how-to-listen-better-1406070727

In-text Citations and Conveying Credibility

In-text Citations and Your Credibility as a Writer and Researcher

References to sources in the text of your document show your work as a researcher. In order to enhance your own credibility as a researcher and writer, use sources that will be obviously credible, such as fact-checked articles from The New York Times or the The Wall Street Journal. Also, use field-specific sources that are clearly relevant to your topic, such as Pet Boarding and Daycare Magazine, though for some audiences you may have to justify their credibility (in this example you could explain that this is the only trade publication for this industry).

As a general rule, lead with the name of the publication for the first citation from a source. This information is usually more meaningful to your reader, which will quickly establish credibility.

In addition, it’s also fine to research the author, and, if relevant, state their credentials. For example, an opinion piece by someone named Janet Morrison isn’t instantly credible, even if it appears in a major newspaper. However, if you add that Morrison has 20 years of relevant experience in epidemiology and virology research at Harvard, as well as a Ph.D. in epidemiology and virology from the University of Michigan, her opinion piece on wearing masks during a pandemic becomes a lot more credible.

First References vs. Subsequent References

Always provide detailed information about the source the first time you use it. Keep subsequent in-text citations brief.  For examples, see In-text Citations and Using a Source Multiple Times.

First Use of Reference: The first time you use a source in a document, establish its credibility and/or relevance to your point, if it won’t be self-evident to readers.

Subsequent References: Once you’ve established your source’s credibility, be as efficient as possible with citation and attribution.

In-text Citations and Using a Source Multiple Times

The first time you mention a source, explain the author’s credentials, or the specific nature of the source. This is only necessary once in a document; keep subsequent mentions of a source as concise as possible.

First Mention Example

Jeff Bezos (2018), CEO of Amazon, in his 2017 letter to shareholders, argued that “[t]he great memos are written and re-written, shared with colleagues who are asked to improve the work, set aside for a couple of days, and then edited again with a fresh mind.”

Subsequent Mention Examples

Bezos (2018) noted that writing “a great memo probably should take a week or more.”

Since memos are written in teams at Amazon, everyone on the team doesn’t have to be a great writer, but everyone needs to “recognize high standards” for writing (Bezos, 2018).

References Page Entry

Bezos, J. (2018). 2017 letter to shareholders. Amazon. https://ir.aboutamazon.com/annual-reports-proxies-and-shareholder-letters/default.aspx

In-text Citation – Principles and Formatting

The Purpose of In-text Citation

In-text citations

• give credit to the original author/s;
• indicate where information from the source both begins and ends in your own sentences and paragraphs;
• direct readers to the correct entry on the References page. In-text citations must match the References list and vice versa.

Attributive tags and in-text citations work together to help “sandwich” information and/or quotations from outside sources. All information between the attributive tag and the parenthetical citation, whether that information is expressed with one word or through multiple sentences, must come from the source indicated by the attributive tag and the parenthetical citation.

The Relationship between In-text Citations and References Entries

In addition, the parenthetical citation must direct readers to the correct source listed on the References page. Therefore, the information that begins the parenthetical citation will match the information that begins the References entry, as in the following example:

According to the Harvard Business Review, failure to “research customer needs” prior to developing products is one of the

most avoidable reasons that startup companies flop (Eisenmann, 2021, p. 81).

Reference

Eisenmann, T. (2021, May-June).  Why startups fail.  Harvard Business Review, 99(3), 76-85.

Note the way that the parenthetical citation leads directly to the References entry—both begin with the author’s last name, which will be easy to find in an alphabetized References list.

References Page – Principles and Formatting

The References page at the end of a document lists all the sources cited in the text and provides publication information so that your readers can find your sources. The only sources that you can mention in the main text that you don’t have to list on the References are broad overviews of websites where you don’t cite any specific information and different types of personal communication, such as interviews and emails.

In APA, the References page is always titled References. Sources should be listed in alphabetical order and formatted with a hanging indent, so that readers can quickly scan the sources.

Model References Page

Synthesizing Multiple Sources

Synthesis means combining different sources to support an idea of your own while clearly articulating the connections between those sources.

Synthesis and Presenting Information. If you’ve been asked to gather information so that someone else can make a decision, you’ll want to develop one or more conclusions from your reading. To help your reader understand the main takeaways from your research, quote or paraphrase key information from a variety of sources to support your conclusions. As in all other workplace writing, your task as a writer is to save your readers time; they shouldn’t have to read your sources to determine whether or not those sources actually do what you say they do if you have effectively quoted, paraphrased, and integrated them into sentences and paragraphs of your own.

Synthesis and Building Credibility. Synthesis can also help you to demonstrate credibility by showing that you looked at multiple sources. In essence, synthesizing is a way of fact-checking yourself, or of reading and citing from multiple sources to ensure accuracy. Thus, a reader is likely to be more persuaded by your conclusions if they are supported by multiple credible sources.

Synthesis and Analysis. If your purpose is to analyze something, synthesis allows you to show that your analysis is based on and accounts for a broad array of sources. A valid analytical conclusion about how effective CEOs use storytelling to promote employee engagement, for example, will be most convincing if you synthesize multiple examples of how many CEOs do this and draw your own conclusion about best practices from those examples.

The following examples synthesize multiple sources to support conclusions. Example one uses APA in-text citations, as you might do in a formal report. Example two provides citations using hyperlinks, as you would likely do in an email.

URLs – When to Include to Entire Address

Use the URL When Creating a Reference Citation for Most Websites

Always include the entire URL in a Reference citation for most websites.* See the relevant citation examples for more information.

*Exception: if you are only giving a broad overview of the website and/or professional organization and not citing or summarizing a specific page, you cite it in-text with an end-of-sentence parenthetical only; it should not appear on the References page.

Do Not Use the URL When Citing Articles from General Library Databases

Do not include the URL for articles you found through a Library database that houses articles from many different places (e.g., ProQuest, Ebscohost, Factiva). If the URL has “ezproxy,” “proquest,” and/or “ebscohost” in it, do not include it. You also don’t need to name the database in this situation.

Do Not Use the URL When Citing from Databases that Contain Content Only Available within that Database

URLs are not included for this type of source, but you will include the name of the database for content that can only be found in that database, such as reports from Marketline or IBISWorld (see Company Reports and Industry Reports in Citation Examples for details).